Valentines Day Party Ideas

Valentine Dance Party Ideas for Teens Ads by Google korean used cars for sale korean bus, truck, new & used cars korean used car exporter   www. roadmatecar. com The DDOS Specialist Identify and block DDOS attacks automatically and in real time. www. riorey. com Looking for Angelica? Find Family & Friends on Facebook. Create a Free Profile – It's Easy! Facebook. com/Angelica Ideas for a great Valentine's Day dance or party for teenagers, including themes, party favors, Valentine decor, food, & activities for your special event.By Janienne Jennrich on Jan 20, 2011 Share Login to post a comment Looking for ideas for a a teen or high school Valentine's Day dance or party? Valentine's Day is February 14. What a terrific time for a special indoor event to celebrate friendship and love! Whether you are interested in planning a large semi-formal or formal dance or a more intimate teen event, there are many ways to create a unique atmosphere with Valentine's Day theme suggestions al ong with decorating, food, and activity ideas. Should the Teen Event Have a Theme?A large event will often have a theme to pull together all the decorating, activities and so on. Having an overall color scheme and style, at least, can help bring plans into focus. For smaller casual parties at home, simply announcing the event date and providing good food and music may be plenty. The most obvious and simple Valentine decor theme is, of course, hearts. A heart-filled party or dance room is easy to create on the cheap, using paper or foam board decorations (and maybe lots of red glitter) and some red, pink and white balloons.Valentine party goods are readily available at party shops, online, and even at dollar stores. Hearts are sweet and simple, but you may be looking for something more unique. A Royalty Themed Valentine Event for Teenagers Prince William and his bride were married in a royal wedding in 2011. For an over the top and epic party, pull out all the stops and make attendee s feel like royalty! Invite princes and princesses to wear their finest to a Royal Valentine Ball. A little corny? Maybe. But if you can't have some fairy tale fun around Valentine's Day, when can you?Invitations rolled up like royal scrolls and tied with ribbon are charming for hand-delivering to friends. For a large school or community event, a scroll design can be included as a border on printed fliers or posters. Add calligraphy or use a fancy computer font to play up the image of a royal event. Consider including: * A long red carpet leading into the ball room (check party rental suppliers) * Ballot boxes for voting for â€Å"Sweetest Princess,† â€Å"Most Dashing Prince,† â€Å"Most Fairytale-Like,† and â€Å"Most Romantic Couple. Award winners with party crowns. * A rose-covered arch or another pretty background for photo opportunities * Lots of sparkle in decorations, party favors, and lighting * Fun and fancy gold-trimmed signs on restroom doors, such as â€Å"Princess's Throne Room† and â€Å"Prince's Throne Room† * A real horse and carriage (preferably white) to take couples on romantic rides around the party area * Make a simple heart-shaped ice sculpture using a ice mold (sold on Amazon or in party supply stores).Display the ice sculpture among flowers as a main centerpiece. Depending on the location, budget and number of teenagers attending the royal event, food and drinks can be simple or extravagant. Ice water and heart-shaped cookies are very nice for a lower-budget event. If money is less of an issue, fill dessert tables with lovely and romantic treats like pretty chocolates and mini Valentine cupcakes. To add a bit of elegance and romance, line food platters with roses and/or add single roses in slim glass vases to the serving table.Offer sparkling cider or an elegant party punch to drink. If you get stuck for idea, watch the ballroom scene of the movie Cinderella (and maybe you'll end up having a Cinderel la themed party! ) Hugs and Kisses Theme – XOXO Valentine Party for Teens XOXO means hugs and kisses and works as an elegant or casual Valentine's dance theme. Hugs and kisses can be those of friendship, so this party theme need not be too mushy (unless mushy is what you want! ). Consider including: A photo spot with props like big huggable teddy bears, giant lips, big hearts and X's and O's * X and O shaped confetti sprinkled on tables * Small tic-tac-toe games printed on red paper (Get it? Tic- tac-toe = X and O? ) * Big X and O shapes, drawn with washable sidewalk chalk, on a concrete walkway, porch, or curb area to welcome guests * Hershey's chocolate Kisses and Hugs candies (with a sign that says â€Å"Get your Hugs and Kisses Here! â€Å") X and O letter shapes are easy to make, so there's no need to be especially artistic to make great decorations.Scrapbook and craft stores may carry large foam, wood, or cardboard shapes to use in party decor. Party colors for this t heme could be pink and white, red and white, black and white, black and silver or a combo of any other of these or other colors. Or who says you can't have a neon green and purple Valentine dance? Not me! Take this theme and run with the ideas for an awesome event all your own! More Fun Valentine Dance or Party Activities These ideas can be used at any Valentines dance, whether or not there is a theme. Flood the dance floor with balloons. With lots of balloons scattered all over the floor, spontaneous bopping and fun balloon fights will happen. * Set up a table where guests fill out kids valentines & â€Å"address† tiny envelopes. Include lots of cheap valentine cards with popular characters like Scooby-Doo, Hello Kitty and Snoopy. Make sure there are some fun stickers (which often come with valentines) and plenty of pens. Teens can write on the cards and give them to each other at the event.Listen for the laughs as stickers get stuck to guests cheeks, noses and clothes. * Fo r other teen Valentines ideas, see Valentine Craft Making Party or  Valentine Tea Party. Find even more Valentine ideas at We Love Valentines. Valentine's Day is Feb. 14, so mark your calendar and get planning! Resources Read more at Suite101:  Valentine Dance Party Ideas for Teens | Suite101  http://suite101. com/article/valentine-dance-party-ideas-for-teens-a335328#ixzz2K6lp3I00   Follow us:  @suite101 on Twitter  |  Suite101 on Facebook

Problems Faceing Susu Collectors in the Bantama Sub-Metro

CHAPTER ONE Introduction Background to the study Personal saving may be voluntary; it can also be contractual through insurance policies by insurance companies and also contributory if through the traditional social security system or â€Å"susuâ€Å". â€Å"Susu† is a traditional form of saving where an individual saves a fixed amount per day with a â€Å"susu† collector for a specified period, say one month. At the end of the month, the Individual collects his or her total savings less one day’s installment, which the â€Å"susu† collector deducts as commission. The higher the umber of clients of a â€Å"susu† collector, the higher the level of that collectors commission at the end of each calendar month. â€Å"Susu† is the popular name given to the rotating savings club in Ghana. It is said to be of Yoruba origin, which is an adulteration of â€Å"esusu†. The term is believed to have been introduced into Ghana by migrant Ibo trade rs before independence in 1957, when formal banking had not caught up well with people especially the indigenous illiterates folks who were mainly traders. With the Alien’s Compliance Order in 1969 coming into force, these aliens left this legacy. Then came quite a number of Ghanaians entering into the business as a result. A few unscrupulous persons also crept in and some actually bolted away with their clients saving. (Aryeetey and Gockel, 1991) In response to the increased cases of fraudulent practices of some â€Å"susu† collectors in the late 1980’s, Ghana Co-operative â€Å"Susu† Collectors Association was formed in 1990 in an attempt to regulate and supervise the activities of the â€Å"susu† collectors. This association serves as the mouthpiece for all â€Å"susu† co-operatives in Ghana. It is the agent that collects taxes on behalf of the commissioner of internal evenue services and external credit facilities for its regional or district societies. (Aryeetey, 2000) and Ardner (1964) echo an informal confirmation that â€Å"susu† was an ancient institution prior to the introduction of the British currency. â€Å"Susu† was practiced by Nigerian traders in Makola number (t wo) market in Accra. Apart from the term â€Å"susu†, the rotating saving club is known by other names in different parts of Ghana. The Ewe’s generally refer to the clubs as â€Å"edzodzo† or â€Å"eso dzodzo†. Whist among the Kotokole’s in the northern part of the Volta region, it is known as â€Å"edeso† (I. P. C, 1988). In some quarters in Laura town the club is known as â€Å"lekseque†. Statement of the problem People have realized the importance of â€Å"susu† scheme yet â€Å"susu† collectors faces a lot of problems mobilizing contributors to participate in the scheme. A lot of contributors have lost interest or back out of the scheme because of the bad perception about â€Å"susu† collectors. Collectors find themselves wanting as sometimes the group in which they join collapse as a result of embezzlement by the group leaders. Some contributors also end up collecting their share of the money contributed and refuse to contribute again. Banks that are involved in the saving scheme also faces documentation problems with their clients. Unfortunately the large amount of research on informal savings has not investigated the problems facing the â€Å"susu† collectors. In pursuit of this research, however, an attempt has been made to find the antecedent facts that leave the â€Å"indigenous savings scheme† incapable of living up to expectation as far as mobilisation, administration and management of funds are concerned. Purpose of the study General Objective: The general purpose of this study was to discover the problems facing â€Å"susu† collectors. The specific objectives of the study are; Specific Objectives: 1. To examine some silent points in the administration and management of â€Å"susu† schemes. 2. To identify how â€Å"susu† saving scheme is organized and operated by individuals and other financial institutions. 3. To find out why people engage in â€Å"susu† schemes. Research questions The researcher posed the following questions to the respondent. 1. What problems exist in the administration of â€Å"susu† scheme? 2. What measures do collectors adopt to ensure the safety of the contributions? 3. Who are those involved in the â€Å"susu† collection? . What problems do collectors face with their clients? 5. How does the scheme operate? 6. Why do people engage in â€Å"susu†? Significance of the study. This study may be useful to â€Å"susu† collectors, financial institutions that take part in the scheme, Ghana Co-operative â€Å"Susu† Collectors Association (G. C. S. C. A), â€Å"susu† contributors and the general public. The management of â€Å"susu† schemes will be able to solve the problems facing their collectors as well as management and administration problems. This may be possible after knowing the problems that exist in the operation of the scheme. The study provides feedback to the Ghana Co-operative â€Å"Susu† Collectors Association (G. C. S. C. A) as to what actually goes on with the operation of the scheme. The study will contribute to the general understanding of â€Å"susu† operations to the advantage of the â€Å"susu† contributor and the general public. Limitaions to the study The study was not obviously without shortcomings. The researcher was faced with some problems. Books written on the susu scheme were a little source of information. The method of sampling used by the researcher was not the appropriate technique but was the cheapest. Other problems were the refusal of some people to grant interview on the topic and the questionnaires. However, with all the problems, it is the hope and wish of the researcher that all information gathered are valid and beneficial to the interested parties especially people of Bantama sub metro. Delimitation of the study In other to get reliable records and information, the research was centered on â€Å"susu† collectors. The researcher contacted garden city savings and loans Bantama branch and â€Å"Gye nyame susu† center at Suntreso south and their members, collectors in their offices and homes. The conclusions and generation therefore were not applicable to all â€Å"susu† schemes. Organization The study consists of five chapters. Chapter one of this study deals with the introduction. It covers the background to the study and sets out the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, the limitations of the study, delimitation of the study, the organization, and definition of terms. Chapter two covers the review of significant or related literature to the study review. Chapter three also talk about the methodology and the procedure for the research. It looks at the various instruments used in collecting the data of the study. Chapter four deals with the presentation of data analysis of information gathered from the survey and interpretation of results. Chapter five also deals with the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. Definition of Term SUSU: An alteration of ‘,esusu,’ a yuroba word given to the rotating savings club in Ghana. CHAPTER TWO Literature review Introduction Informal financial savings have been an important part of local financial resource mobilisation in Ghana and other countries since the introduction of money as medium of xchange. Through these savings most trader and dwellers are able to raise capital for their business and other commercial activities. This involves element of credit union and the insurance scheme. In Ghana, the traditional societies are called by the name â€Å"susu† societies and â€Å"susu† clubs. A lot of authors, researchers and scholars have addr essed the issue of â€Å"susu†. Problems Howard et, al (2000) contended that â€Å"susu† collectors are unused in having an apex organization to represent them. In the North, eight hundred and fifty (850) are registered ith this; though it is estimated that a further one hundred and fifty (150) unregistered members operate in the North. They run the business from kiosk located in the market place and act as mobile bankers deposits, often of low but regular value, are usually taken on daily basis over the course of the month. Ghana-vision 2020 Program Of Action for the first medium-term development plan (June 1998-2000) stated that though voluntary informal savings groups (â€Å"susu†) provide most of the working capital of small and medium scale enterprises, these â€Å"susu† groups nd other non-banking financial institutions are at present not geared towards long-term investment financing. This has been a major problem with â€Å"susu’ groups in Ghana. However there is strong possibility for â€Å"susu† to form the basis for the establishment of mutual funds and co-operative savings scheme. According to the report of Financial Accountability and management (August 2004), it is inevitable that the development of credit unions does not conform to a single universal blueprint. In the context of worldwide movement, three major differences in the development of particular credit union industries. Credit union movements in specific locations will potentially move from birth, through adolescence to full development as a consequence of the growth in assets and a direct bearing on accountability. Again to the extent that homogeneity does not pertain, significant variability in accountability between credit unions may exist. Safety of contributions According to Aryeetey (2000) most ‘informal savings mobilizers’ (including â€Å"susu† collectors) use bank facilities for deposits. This implies that a substantial part of rural financial savings end up in banks. At Bonwire and Efiduase in rural Asante, â€Å"susu† ollectors were able to collect ? 8. 8 million and ? 8. 6 million per month, respectively, which they saved in commercial banks in Kumasi, the regional capital (ROSCA survey, 1999). But while informally mobilized savings are to enhance the lending operations of formal banks both this study and the study by Aryeetey (2000) indicates that such lending is skewed towards urban areas. These â€Å"susu† collectors use the banking facilities extensively to safeguard their funds. People involved in the scheme Ndeh (1998) in presenting a paper on the informal savings added that women specially those in the rural population faces considerable obstacles in their access to institutional source of funding. For instance some bank managers would like to â€Å"sleep† with them before they are given loans. Because they do not want to fall victims of circumstances they decide to form groups to save funds in order to aid them in their finances. To add to his comment Ndeh talked about the situation in the Philippines where traders especially women who are married cannot contract loan from the bank without the consent of their husbands. They therefore involve themselves in informal financing here they can get easy access to credit. Ndeh also said that less than 28% of Cameroon women traders get access to formal credit. He also commen ted that this kind of situation in Cameroon might also affect traders in other developing countries. According to Ardener and Burnan (1995) the rotating â€Å"susu† club continue to play a dynamic role in helping to meet the cash needs of women traders and farmers. It is found on principles of mutual trust, obligatory relations and homogeneity. Most â€Å"susu† collectors were Women. This shows that women are mostly involved in the â€Å"susu† scheme. According to Caselli. F (1998), the â€Å"susu† collectors provide savings facilities to individuals involved in a wide variety of informal income generating activities, traders, cart pushers, apprentices, mechanism drivers, and sometimes farmers and fishermen. Operation of the scheme According to Adjetey (1998), a variant of the â€Å"susu† scheme in popularly known as â€Å"olu† savings scheme, sometimes described in the literature as mobile banking. In the scheme, the â€Å"olus† or â€Å"susu† collectors go to markets and hawkers to collect daily savings. The saver chooses the amount he or she can deposit each day, and the collector ecords this amount on a card, indicating some personal information about the depositor. No formal agreement exists between the saver and the collector. The scheme is based entirely on personal trust and relationship. Some collectors do make credit facilities available to some of their traders. Such facilities sometimes attract interest pa yments that one made on daily basis. â€Å"Susu† collectors are entitled to the first daily contribution as commission. The money collected from various contributors are sent to the agent of the scheme which is later deposited at the bank for save keeping. Emerging system Bortei-doku and Ayeetey (1998) discuss the operation of rotating savings clubs in Ghana, shedding light on such issues as the significance of clubs within the national economy, their structural and functional characteristics, their gender composition, the attitudes and perceptions of club members about the system, and more recent changes and variations included by changes in the national macroeconomic setting. They note that while the mainstream principle of grouping together people whose common goal is to accumulate a lump sum over a specific period of time is still a respected method for obilizing savings and allocation credit, and thus a robust socioeconomic development instrument, the operationalisation of that principle had changed over time. They noted that ‘new’ institutions had emerged, but using the same principle, that is â€Å"susu† collectors and emerging savings and loan companies. Botei-doku and Aryeetey argue that despite changes in how the principl e group economic activity operationalised, the interests of men and women as differentiable savers in this informal sector activity appear to have been effected even if only moderately: thus, while women appear to be more active in accumulating the required ump-sums within the framework of the newer â€Å"susu† collector system, more men particularly at workplaces, continue to stock to rotating saving schemes. They maintain that the â€Å"susu† system remains a resilient institution, in view of the preparedness of participants to introduce operational innovations in response to changing socioeconomic conditions. Also in a report on new institutions, Aryeetey, (2000) observes â€Å"susu† companies that have emerged in Ghana only since 1985 operational principles are similar to those of individual â€Å"susu† collectors. The difference between the two is that the saver is ‘guaranteed’ credit. Rather han deposits being returned to the saver mont hly, as is the case with the â€Å"susu† collector, the company holds them for at least six months, after which depositor may withdraw the saving in addition to an equivalent amount of loan. As part of the innovation occurring among informal units, newer savings and loan companies have also emerged. These entities sometimes use commissioned agents (â€Å"susu† collectors) to mobilize deposits primarily from market women and make short-term loans available to them from time to time. Interest and collateral base Broham, John (2000) found that on the credit side, the advances made by the â€Å"susu† ollectors to their regular depositors are usually of low value, very short term ( less than one year) provided in an interest free basis without collateral and disbursed immediately if the money is at hand. The money lenders advance loans on interest higher than the banks but without collateral, and disbursed very quickly if the client is known. The world Bank (1995) in dicates that positive real interest rates are not crucial in mobilizing additional deposits and creating avenues for granting credit as evidence by the fact that the â€Å"susu’ system functions with negative nominal rates. It indicates that rural communities place a higher premium on convenience, accessibility and trust. Why people engage in â€Å"susu† Aryeetey and Gockel (1991) also stated that, the estimates of the size of informal savings suggest that about fifty percent (50%) of total financial savings in Ghana is attributable to the â€Å"susu† system. Most â€Å"susu† clubs are guided by unwritten codes of conduct. Writers like Aryeetey and Aryeetey (1996) wrote on the operations, utilizations, and changes in rotating â€Å"susu† savings in Ghana. They found out that in an economic climate where several social groups in the orkforce find that their access to informal institutions is limited due to their socio- economic handicap, informal institutions such as â€Å"susu† are bond to flourish. Aryeetey et al (1990) said besides the difficulty of operating a bank account, the distribution of bans and the low levels of literacy in Ghana especially among traders, ma kes the informal saving practical for certain categories of people. While in the large urban areas of Ghana, banking facilities may be away from them. Although â€Å"susu† collectors sometimes embezzle their money they still prefer it because the collectors ome to collect the daily contribution at their workplace. Ndeh (1998) presented a paper on the informal savings. He commented that, in developing countries, the financial institutions have utterly neglected the mobilisation of savings and deposit facilities in order to make them accessible to majority of the rural population therefore this people have resorted to informal savings to save their hard earned money. Aryeetey and aryeetey (1995) indicated that, though â€Å"susu† is popularly used to purchased small consumer goods, there a is strong evidence that, it is an important source of business capital. Opoku l. (1997) argues that ,†susu† is perhaps the best-known and oldest form of self- financing bus iness scheme in Ghana. The Sunday Hauld (1997) also argues that â€Å"susu† is perhaps the largest best known and oldest form of self financial business scheme in Ghana. Despite the growth of the banking sector, in the past few years â€Å"susu† and other non banking financial scheme have remained the back bone and lifeline for a substances proportion of workers in Ghana’s economic development especially those operating in the informal sector, which is in fact the dominant force in the country’s economy. This has shown the contribution of the cheme to national development. The World Bank (1995) also identifies several informal financial arrangements in Ghana. They include Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCA) and moneylenders. It attempts to find explanations for the existence of the informal sector and suggest that in rural areas are the banking system offer low quality services: the processing of deposit and withdrawal takes several hours, an d in some instances customers find no cash and must revisit the bank in order to make a withdrawal. This has shown that some people are interested in the scheme because of the convenience attached o the â€Å"susu† scheme. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction To ensure the collection of reliable and accurate information or data for the research work, certain procedures and methods were adopted. This chapter deals with the methods used by the researcher in collecting data for the purpose of the research. It involves the research design, population and sampling, data collection techniques, data collection procedures and data analysis. Research Design The type of research design adopted for this study was a survey. A survey conducted on â€Å"susu† collectors to ascertain the problems they face. The survey helps find answers to research questions in order to get information needed for the research. Critically examining the research questions, it was realized that a survey was the most suitable research design for the study of information. The survey was aided by questionnaire and interview. This method gives a quantitative means of establishing relationship among variables. Population The population for the study was from â€Å"susu† collectors and â€Å"susu† co-operative members in Bantama sub-metro. This population was made up of rotating â€Å"susu† collectors, â€Å"susu† agents nd other â€Å"susu† co-operative members. Sampling The members of this study were selected through convenience and purposive sampling by relying on â€Å"susu† collectors and â€Å"susu† co-operative union members. The sample size included twenty (20) â€Å"susu† collectors and five (5) â€Å"susu co-operative members. For reasons includi ng lower cost, greater accuracy of results, greater speed of data collection and availability of population subjects, the researcher used convenience and purposive method of sampling. Though convenience sampling is the least reliable design, the researcher chose convenience ampling because it was the cheapest and easiest to conduct. The researcher had the freedom to choose whoever was found. This method of sampling was used to test ideas and even to gain ideas about the subject of interest. In this study, the researcher wanted to talk to only those directly engaged in the collection of contributions of the â€Å"susu† scheme hence purposive sampling was used. The researcher found it very useful and appropriate in the early stages of the research. In all, a total number of twenty-five (25) subjects were pulled from two (2) operating â€Å"susu† schemes in the sub-metro. This was made up of twenty (20) â€Å"susu† collectors and five (5) other â€Å"susu† co-operative union members. Data collection instruments The researcher used interview and questionnaire as instruments to gather information needed for the study. The interview approach was aimed at finding out the views of individual â€Å"susu† collectors from various â€Å"susu† groups, â€Å"susu† administrators and other members of the scheme. The issues upon which the interview schedule was based on was the administrative problems faced by â€Å"susu† collectors. In all, nine (9) items were in the interview. This interview was however unstructured. The â€Å"susu† collectors and other members of the â€Å"susu† scheme who could read answered the questionnaire. In designing the questionnaire schedule, the researcher considered the degree and form of structure imposed on the respondents. He used various response strategies; offer options that included unstructured open-ended response (the free choice of words) and structured or close response (specified alternatives provided). Free response nature of some of the questions offered the respondents the opportunity to express themselves extensively. The respondents were all literates so there were no difficulties in administering the questions. Different questions were designed for the different target groups (based on the objectives of the study in chapter one) to obtain the primary and secondary information as well as data from the field. The questionnaires designed for the respondent comprised open-ended questions and objective questions. In all Twenty- six (26) items were in the questionnaire. Data collection procedures Copies of the questionnaire were self-administered upon gaining access to participants. The questionnaire incorporated open-ended questions and was couched in simple language. With this process, a lot of data can be gotten with relative ease from different people within a shorter period. The collection of data covered a period of two weeks. The â€Å"susu† collectors were interviewed on-the-job with an interview lasting for an average of ten (10) minutes. Questionnaires were sent to â€Å"susu† collectors at their offices and on-the-job. R respondent were given two (2) weeks for the questionnaires. The questionnaires were collected personally and the rate of return of the questionnaires was 100%. Validity and Reliability of data collected. For the purpose of validity, the researcher made sure that all the information obtained from the respondents were the true answers to the interview and questionnaires designed for them. Again any form of misconstrues in the minds of the respondents concerning the understanding of the question and how to complete them were explained to clear their minds. Finally, for the benefit of validity and reliability of data, the researcher deemed it right to use convenience and purposive method of sampling to avoid high cost and errors. Data analysis The technique for analyzing data was by quantitative and qualitative techniques. The major findings were analysed in percentage points and resented in tables and charts. CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter gives the findings and analyzes the data collected for the study. This analysis involves the use of quantitative and qualitative techniques. The major findings were then presented in percentages and resented in tables and charts. Data gathered from the findings could be evaluated to come out with the shortcomings of the operations of â€Å"susu† collectors and spell ut the strategies necessary for improvement. Response from questionnaire to each area of interest. |†Susu† Group |People of interest |Questionnaire |Response | | | | |Number |Percentage | |Garden City savings and loans |†susu† collectors |10 |9 |95% | | |Members of co-operative union |3 |2 |66. % | |†Gye Nyame â€Å"susu† center |†susu† c ollectors |10 |10 |100% | | |Members of co-operative union |2 |2 |100% | Out of the sample size of twenty (20), nineteen (19) responded, representing about 95% of the â€Å"Susu† collectors from the two â€Å"susu† groups on the sub-metro. Out of the sample size of five 5), from other members of co-operative union, four (4) responded representing about 80%. In terms of â€Å"susu† groups assigned to respond, response ranges from 95% to 100% representing 95% of â€Å"susu† collectors assigned from Garden city savings and loans and 100% to â€Å"susu† collectors assigned from ‘Gye Nyame â€Å"susu† center’. With the response of members of â€Å"susu† co-operative union the percentage range was 66. 79% to Garden city saving and loans and 100% to ‘Gye Nyame â€Å"susu† center’. The following are the findings: What problems exist in the Administration of â€Å"susu† scheme? The problem identified by Howard et, al (2000) was that â€Å"susu† collectors were unused in having an apex organization to represent them. Ghana-vision 2020 programme of action for the first medium-term development plan (June 1998-2000) stated that the working capital provided by â€Å"susu† groups in Ghana were not geared towards long-term investment financing. According to the report of Financial Accountability and Management (August 2004), the development of susu† credit unions does not conform to a single universal blueprint and homogeneity does not pertain. The researcher wanted to find out whether or not â€Å"susu† collectors had administrators. 100% of the response to this question was â€Å"yes†. It was further observed that most â€Å"susu† groups had the â€Å"susu† group administrator as the highest of authority on the organizational structure. Below s hows the organizational structure of most â€Å"susu† groups in Bantama sub-metro; | | |SCHEME ADMINISTRATOR | | | | | |   |   |   |   | | | | |   | | | |   | | |SCHEME MANAGER | | |SCHEME ACCOUNTANT | | | | |   |   | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |†SUSU† AGENTS | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | |†SUSU† COLLECTORS | | | The above figure is the organizational chat which determine how people, task, technological and material resources were been grouped. This speed up working activities and enhance effective, efficient, harmonization and good co-ordination. About 53% of response to the questions 8 and 9 with which the researcher wanted to find out if â€Å"susu† collectors faced administrative problems was â€Å"yes†. Which represented ten (10) out of the nineteen (19) responses to the questions. Response to the administrative problems. |Response |Number interviewed |Percentage (%) | |Yes |10 |53 | |No |9 |47 | Some of the administrative problems stated included: Bureaucratic problems. Low salary to â€Å"susu† collectors frequent absenteeism of top management. The strict and rigidity of rules and regulation Rules and regulations. A questionnaire was designed to find out the rules and regulations used for the administration of the scheme. The response was that, the rules and regulations which serve as a form of controlling checks and balances of the scheme helps to keep the accounting books and records accordingly. The rules and regulations for keeping financial records at the various schemes were the strict use of (ATF) accounting system treasury and financial reporting guidelines. It also nvolves the reporting hierarchy of the scheme from the â€Å"lower susu collectors† up the organizational chart to the highest of the structure. About 62% of the â€Å"susu† collectors complained of the rules and regulations being so strict and made no room for changes. Salary The re searcher observed that the salary structure of â€Å"susu† collectors in Bantama sub-metro ranges from ? 400,000 to ? 700,000. â€Å"Susu† collectors in the sub-metro complained of their salary although most of them knew they had no ‘better’ qualification to earn much salary. They compare the cumulative amount deducted from their clients as commission for them with the amount given to them at the end of the month. About 70% of the â€Å"susu† collectors interview evealed this to the researcher during the interview. Budget Budget was drawn to help financial plan for a period of time. Monies allocated were used for specified purposes. The budget had been prepared annually for the scheme by the general accountant who is the head of the budget implementation team. The team according to Garden city savings and loans is made up of the scheme administrator, the general accountant, the scheme manager, and five (5) senior members of â€Å"susu† collec tors. The component of the revenue side of the budget is made up of income from â€Å"susu† contributions, interest on â€Å"susu† contributions invested into other businesses, and loans. The expenditure side of the budget onsist of spending on personnel emolument, administrative, services, and investment. The problem â€Å"susu’ collectors in Bantama sub-metro have with this budget is that, they are not usually considered in the plan. What measures do â€Å"susu† collectors adopt to ensure the safety of contributions? According to Aryeetey (2000) most informal savings schemes (including â€Å"susu† collectors) use banking facilities for deposits. The â€Å"susu† collectors use the banking facilities extensively to safeguard their funds. The researcher also found out that, to safeguard their funds, proper financial books were kept. Monies were also deposited at the banks for safekeeping. Financial books kept and their uses. Books |Uses | | | | |Cash book |For recording income and expenditure | | | | |Expenditure budget ledger |Recording expenditure against budget | | | | |Debtors ledger |Recording credit and payments made by â€Å"susu† | | | | | |contributors. | | | |Debtors control |Total of credits and payments made by all | | | | | |â€Å"susu† contributors and other creditors | To ensure the safety of contribution deposited by contributors, these books are kept in addition to depositing the amount at the bank. Almost all â€Å"susu† groups in the Bantama sub-metro keep these books; 100% of the 19 responses received revealed this to the researcher. Monitoring team The researcher found that, the schemes or â€Å"susu† groups had a strong monitoring team that is made up of personnel ranging from twelve (12) to sixteen (16). The monitoring team meets monthly. The team checks and controls financial activities. This results in effectiveness and efficiency of work in the operation of the scheme. Personal interviews were held to find out if there had been any research work on problems facing â€Å"susu† collectors in their operations and if external auditors audited their books. The responses were that, there were auditors and those were the independent auditors outside the scheme who inspects accounting books to find out if they were kept on justification and to give feedback to shareholders. They audit the books yearly to ensure the safety of the contributions. Who are those involved in the â€Å"susu† scheme? Ndeh (1998) indicated that people mostly involved in the â€Å"susu† scheme were women. Ardener and Burnan (1995) found that, women traders and farmers were mostly involved in the â€Å"susu† scheme. Most â€Å"susu† collectors in Ghana were women. Caselli . F (1998) also found that traders , cart pushers, apprentices, mechanism drivers and sometimes farmers and fishermen were mostly involved in the â€Å"susu† scheme. The researcher also found out that, about 90% of â€Å"susu† contributors were women. This was made known to the researcher when about 95% of â€Å"susu† collectors confirmed that their clients were women traders. â€Å"susu† collectors at the various â€Å"susu† group. â€Å"Susu† Group |Female |Male | | | | | |Garden City |28 |6 | | | | | |savings and loans | | | | | | | |â€Å"Gye nyame† |10 |4 | | | | | |â€Å"susu† center | | | From the table above, it could be observed that out of the to tal number of â€Å"susu† collectors from the two â€Å"susu† groups of forty-eight (48), thirty-eight (38) of these â€Å"susu† collectors are female representing 79% and ten (10) out of forty-eight (48) are male representing only 21%. This reveals that the majority of â€Å"susu† collectors in the Bantama sub-metro are females. Educational qualification of respondents. Level of Education |Number Interviewed |Percentage (%) | | | | | |Tertiary education |2 |8 | | | | | |Post secondary |8 |32 | | | | | |Technical school |5 |20 | | | | | |Vocational school |10 |40 | The observation made from the table and the pie chart indicated that as much as 40% of the â€Å"susu† collectors interviewed had vocational education, 20% had technical education, 32% had ost secondary education, and 8% had tertiary education. What problems do collectors face with their clients? Aryeetey et, al (1990) said besides the difficulty of operating a bank account, the dist ribution of banks and low levels of literacy in Ghana especially among traders, makes the informal saving practical for certain categories of people. â€Å"Susu† collectors face problems with the high illiteracy rate among the traders among the problem. This was made known to the researcher during the study. Out of the nineteen (19) responses received from â€Å"susu† collectors from the two (2) â€Å"susu† groups, eighteen (18) representing 94. 7% responded â€Å"Yes† to having problems with their clients. Some problems included documentation problems: That is the problems mostly faced with the illiterate clients. Majority of the trader-contributors do not understand the operations of the scheme and accuse â€Å"susu† collectors of being ‘fraud agents’ in times of any delays in payment of their contributed amount. How does the scheme operate? Referring to the literature review, Aryeetey (1998) found that, the â€Å"olus† or â€Å"susu† collectors go to markets and hawkers to collect daily savings. The â€Å"susu† contributor chooses the amount he or she can deposit each day, and the collector records this amount on a card, indicating some personal information about the depositor. No formal agreement exists between the saver and the collector. The scheme is based entirely on personal trust and relationship. Some collectors do make credit facilities available to some of their traders. Such facilities sometimes attract interest on the credits. â€Å"Susu† collectors were entitled to the first daily contribution as commission. The money collected from various contributors are sent to the agent of the scheme which is later deposited at the bank for save keeping. The researcher also found that, the monies collected by the rotating â€Å"susu† collectors daily are submitted to â€Å"susu† agents who are also called senior â€Å"susu† collectors to render accounts on the mount collected. â€Å"susu† agents renders accounts to the general accountant. The monies are then deposited at the bank or reinvested into businesses to earn interest. To ensure the safety of contributions , monies are invested into high interest earning business. Monies deposited to the banks are redrawn with the bureaucratic system were executives endorse the cheque. It includes the endorsement of the general accountant, scheme manager and scheme administrator. In cases where a contributor wanted to collect a contribution, the â€Å"susu† collector is informed a day before the collection. If the â€Å"susu† collector is not informed a day before the collection of the ontribution and he or she feels the amount collected from â€Å"susu† contributors are enough, the â€Å"susu† collectors pays the amount demanded. The â€Å"susu† collector collects the contribution card or book within which the â€Å"susu† collector ticks and sends it to the office of â€Å"susu† group for clearance. The researcher also observed that, depositors with â€Å"susu† collectors usually increases the amount of their deposits in November, often doubling them. They do so obviously to ensure that they are able t o save adequately towards anticipated expenditure for Christmas. Interest and collateral base Broham, John (2000) found that on the credit side, the advances made by the â€Å"susu† ollectors to their regular depositors are usually of low value, very short term ( less than one year) provided in an interest free basis without collateral and disbursed immediately if the money is at hand. The money lenders advance loans on interest higher than the banks but without collateral, and disbursed very quickly if the client is known. The researcher wanted to know how lending capital was raised and allocated. For â€Å"susu† collectors, mobilized deposits were their only lending bases. The capital base of most â€Å"susu† operations in Bantama sub-metro appeared to have grown considerably in nominal terms since their activities began. Various institutions were able to determine whether he base had grown in real terms, by how much their clientele had grown. They suggested t hat they had seen real growth over the years. †susu† collectors in Bantama sub-metro granted an average loan of ?450,000 in 2004, with a repayment schedule of one month. The longest maturity period offered by â€Å"susu† collectors was three month. Here, also the loan amounts were often about the same size as were requested by clients. Thus it would seem that â€Å"susu† collectors do not normally scale down the amount requested by clients; in fact, they indicate that their clients know what is reasonable to expect. In 2004, the largest loan amount granted by a†susu† collector was 2,500,000 and the smallest ? 200,000 indicating the flexibility of the system. â€Å"susu† collectors cannot grant longer-term loans given the short-term nature of their deposit liabilities. Here, also, the difference in the average size of urban and rural loans was statically significant. The loan amount of a rotating â€Å"susu† group is equivalent to t he total amount contributed by its members at an agreed-upon time. The size of these cash contributions vary widely from one group to another. Members usually choose an amount that will yield a sizable enough fund for them to make ‘large’ purchases or to provide working capital for business. The appropriated size ay thus be derived from the cost of some of the goods that members wanted to buy, including household appliances and building materials. Some of the amounts being applied in the public departments of some urban areas are about 10% of the salaries of junior civil servants each month, yielding an intake (or loan amount) of ? 900,000. Most â€Å"susu’ collectors do not charge interest on their loans because all they do is advance amounts equivalent to what clients are obliged to save, less their own commission at about 3. 3% each month for the 30% of the sample who do charge interest on loans; particularly to non- depositor clients. It is obvious that when â€Å"susu† collectors decree to lend to non-clients they ehave like typical moneylenders, with the exception-that â€Å"susu† collectors intermediate funds that are mobilized through â€Å"susu† collection. However, in view of the high-risk and short-term nature of this activity, its scope is limited. In reference to collateral, â€Å"susu† collectors take security for granted in view of the nature of association. Thus, many â€Å"susu† collectors require security only when they lend to non-deposit clients (40% of the sample of collectors) and almost 70% of the cooperatives do not require security. Why do people engage in â€Å"susu†? Aryeetey (1996) found out in his research into the operations, utilizations, and changes in otating â€Å"susu† savings in Ghana that, in an economic climate where several social groups in the workforce find that their access to informal institutions is limited due to their socio-economic handicap, inf ormal institutions such as â€Å"susu† are bond to flourish. According to World Bank (1995), in areas where banking systems offer low quality services: The processing of deposit and redrawal takes several hours then â€Å"susu† is bond to flourish. Out of the four (4) â€Å"susu† contributors interviewed, three (3) representing 75% agreed to the fact that they engage in the â€Å"susu† because banks may be away from them but the â€Å"susu† collectors come to collect the daily contribution at their own convenience. All the four (4) agreed o the fact that many banking systems offer low quality services: the processing of deposits and withdrawal takes several hours and in some instances customer find no cash and must revisit the bank for withdrawal. CHAPTER FIVE Summary, conclusion and recommendations Introduction This chapter summarizes the findings in the study and draws conclusions on them. Finally it gives recommendations as to how to solve the p roblems entailed in the previous chapter and gives possible suggestions to improve on the operations of â€Å"susu† scheme by â€Å"susu† collectors. Summary The objective of this research carried on was to investigate on the problems facing â€Å"susu† collectors in the Bantama sub-metro. During the study, it was realized that â€Å"susu† groups and â€Å"susu† collectors kept good records on their activities. The majority of the â€Å"susu† collectors were females and majority of them had vocational school certificate. The â€Å"susu† groups prepared budget yearly with funds sourced from â€Å"susu† contributors re-invested into other businesses to raise enough interest to match against expenditure. Rules and regulations were set to be a guideline for book keeping at various â€Å"susu† groups. Appropriate budgetary system was conducted and financial books for various activities were kept properly and were used for different purposes except that â€Å"susu† collectors were not actively involved. A monitoring team hat checks the financial operations had been set up and external auditors audited the financial books kept strictly annually. â€Å"susu† collectors are attractive to low-income earners who need short-t erm working capital. The relatively low interest rate makes lending even more attractive, as does the possibility that repayment can be made daily in small amounts. Although the loans amounts are relatively small, their regularity enables many traders to smoothing their expenditure patterns by making immediate payments to suppliers and thus ensuring a regular flow of supplies. The small size of the loans and their very short maturity periods do not make them very useful for small and micro enterprises. Lastly a research work that was to be conducted on the improvement of operations of the â€Å"susu† scheme was yet to be done. Conclusion From the information obtained from the questionnaires and interviews, a conclusion needs to be drawn to assess the operations and problems faced by â€Å"susu† collectors in the country. The subheadings below present the conclusion: Administrative problems. Rules and regulations are set for â€Å"susu† groups with regards to the reporting guidelines and the proper action to be taken on the books kept at various â€Å"susu’ schemes. The â€Å"susu† groups were supposed to use the ATF reporting guidelines. The majority of â€Å"susu† collectors in Bantama sub-metro expressed their discomfort with this guideline stating it was so rigid and inflexible. The work of the external or independent auditors helps to prevent fraud and irregularities in the operations of the â€Å"susu† scheme. However, â€Å"susu† collectors expressed their discomfort when the external auditors are at the premises of the â€Å"susu† group stating that they distract and interrupt their daily operations and work. The daily budget drawn was to help a financial plan for a period of time. Many items of expenditure were mostly considered to match revenue for per year. â€Å"susu† collectors were not happy with the budget because they were not mostly considered in the budget as an expenditure item. Organization and operational problems As it was observed in the previous chapter, for a contribution to be redrawn by a contributor, he or she needs to inform the â€Å"susu† collector a day before the collection. â€Å"susu† contributors expressed their annoyance with the system and mistrust with this operation. This has been a problem â€Å"susu† collectors face with this operation. The â€Å"susu† groups offer jobs for the unemployed of this country and in so doing reduces the problem of high rate of unemployment. However â€Å"susu† collectors expressed their dissatisfaction with the amount they receive as salary especially during the month of November where most susu† collectors’ client and deposits per â€Å"susu† contributor increases in size. The monitoring team had not done enough study to ascertain the problems â€Å"susu† collectors face and even if they had done that. No effort was made to address these problem s. Also the various â€Å"susu† groups have personnel with varying educational background like those identified in the previous chapter. How ever the groups do not set a specific standard of qualification required. The analysis in the previous chapters reveals that â€Å"susu† collectors cannot grant longer-term loans given the short-term nature of their deposit liabilities. Also the loan amount of a rotating susu† group is equivalent to the total amount contributed by its members at an agreed-upon time. Most â€Å"susu† collectors do not charge interest on their loans because all they do is advance amounts equivalent to what clients are obliged to save, less their own commission. This reduces the profitability of â€Å"susu† groups as well as has effects on the salary of â€Å"susu† collectors. â€Å"susu† collectors require security only when they lend to non-deposit clients. â€Å"susu† collectors tend to face problems when s ome client fails to pay amount loaned to them. To conclude it all, â€Å"susu† collectors face administrative problems as well as problems in the organization and operation of the scheme. Recommendation. To improve upon the operation of the â€Å"susu† scheme in Bantama sub-metro after identifying the problems they face. The suggestions below should be taken into consideration. Rotating â€Å"susu† collectors association (ROSCA) should review the ATF guidelines regularly to ensure consistent application of the accounting standards to the accounting books kept. The budget implementation team should also ensure that, â€Å"susu† collectors problems are identified and included in the budget and ensure that funds are solely spent according to what has been budgeted. ROSCA should also set up an accounting advisory unit to update the accountant on proper books keeping and accounting which will facilitate proper planning and decision. In every institution, there must be a control mechanism in order to ensure effectiveness and efficiency. ROSCA should appoint internal auditors who will work permanently for â€Å"susu† groups alongside a set of rules and regulations to govern the conduct of these internal auditors. Regular research work must be encouraged by way of providing researchers with the needed information in order to determine the shortfalls of the operations of â€Å"susu† collectors. â€Å"susu† deposits should be educated on the operation of the scheme in order to avoid frequent blaming of â€Å"susu† collectors. To raise the amount of salary for â€Å"susu† collectors, a low interest should be charged to regular clients. This is to get enough funds to pay â€Å"susu† collectors. â€Å"susu† collectors should demand collateral security before loans can be advanced. This is to avoid the risk of loosing money in the operation of the scheme. The researcher supposes that, if the above suggestions recommended are carried out, it would improve upon the operations of the â€Å"susu† scheme by â€Å"susu† collectors in the Bantama sub- metro. Suggestions for further research. Research work conducted was limited to problems facing â€Å"susu† collectors in the Bantama sub-metro. The researcher therefore suggest further research work on the problems facing â€Å"susu† collectors in other sub-metros in Kumasi and Ghana at large. RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Transport of Solute in Solvent through Osmosis Essay

Objective: The objective is to simulate passive transport: diffusion of solutes and osmosis of water through a semipermeable membrane (dialysis tubing). The experiment will show how molecules in solution move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration in the attempt to reach homeostasis in different circumstances. Introduction: The main purpose of this lab was to observe diffusion and osmosis. This is demonstrated using dialysis tubing and a combination of monosaccharaides, disaccharides, water (H20), and sodium chlorine (NaCl), also known as table salt. We then calculated the percent change of mass over a period of time. Due to kinetic energy, cells tend to bump into one another; this is the result of the process called diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. In this lab, diffusion causes a physical change of our cells (mass). Osmosis is a type of diffusion that involves water. Osmosis occurs when water moves through a semi-permeable membrane. The water moves from a place of higher water concentration to a place of lower water concentration. Water potential measures free energy of water in any solution. A solution is a liquid mixture of two or more components. This mixture consists of a minor component (the solute) which is c onsistently distributed within a major component (the solvent). Water potential consists of 2 parts: osmotic potential and pressure potential. Osmotic potential pertains to the water molecules that move from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution (changing the concentration gradient), while pressure potential pertains to the exertion of pressure the cell is under. The pressure is caused by the height of water exposed to the atmosphere above the artificial cell. The concentration gradient is generally the difference in concentration of a dissolved substance in a solution. This occurs between a region of high density and lower density. Water potential of distilled water in  atmospheric pressure is 0, because the osmotic and pressure potentials are 0. For example, in plant cells, osmotic potential is lowered because more of its solute is being dissolved in the cytoplasm. When placed in pure water, the cells of the plant are hypertonic. This means the plant cells have more osmo tic concentration. The water potential within the beaker is higher making it hypotonic, meaning it has a lower osmotic pressure. Therefore the water will move into the cell because water moves from hypotonic environments to hypertonic environments. This results in a swelling cell. On the contrary, if solute is added to the beaker, the water potential in the cell will be greater, resulting in a hypotonic cell. Therefore water will move out of the cell, causing it to shrivel. This is relative to this lab. However, not all solutions are like this. Solutions that have reached the state of equilibrium are isotonic. This means that both solute and solvent have the same osmotic pressure. The rates of the reaction are determined by the molecular size of the particles. If the particles or smaller, they diffuse through the semi-permeable membrane much faster than particles larger than the semi-permeable membrane. This is because the smaller particles have less of a resistance to pass through the selectively permeable membrane. If the particle is larger it is going to take a much longer time for the particle to push its way through the membrane. Materials: Dialysis tubing Scissors Small funnel Graduated cylinder Paper towel Digital scale 400mL beaker 250mL beaker 1 mL pipette Test tube Hot plate Weigh boats Pipette Pipetter Methods: 1) Obtain ten 40 centimeter strips of dialysis tubing and soaked them in water. This will moisten the dialysis tubing to a rubbery texture that is easier to maneuver and work with. Tie off one end of the tubing 2cm from the end to form a bag. Finally to open the other end of the bag, we rubbed the closed, untied end between our fingers until the edges separated. 2) Measure 25mL of the applicable solution needed for the dialysis cell. This should be done with a 25mL graduated cylinder. Measuring with a 25mL graduated cylinder insures that no errors be made. To properly measure 25mL, the graduated cylinder should be placed on a flat surface and you should be at eye level with its measurements. A full 25mL is measured at the bottom of the meniscus. Once the solution has been measured, using a small funnel, pour the solution into the dialysis bag by inserting the tip of the funnel into the open end. Finally make a note of what the cell is containing; it is very easy to get them mixed up. A source of error that is unwanted. 3) Tie the open end of the dialysis bag 2cm from the end of the bag. 4) Rinse the dialysis cell thoroughly under water to guarantee any foreign substance that may have touched the dialysis cell is rinsed off and gently blot the dialysis cell with paper towel. The dialysis cells must be completely dry so when the cell is being weighed, the digital scale will not be weighing water weight on the cell as well. Using a weigh boat, measure the cells mass. The weigh boat is used for the purpose to avoid cross contamination between the cell and scale. To insure that the cell is the only thing being weighed, place the weigh boat on the scale and press clear. This will set the scale to 0 with the weigh boat still on it. Place the cell on the weigh boat and record the total weight of the cell. Your data should be weighed in grams (g). Before submerging your cell in its beaker with solution correlated on Table #1, the dialysis cell must be weighed. This will give us an idea of what the cell begins at and in what way diffusion and osmosis affects the dialysis cell . The cell must be weighed every 30 minutes in a time period of 90 minutes. The dialysis cell should be weighed four times. 5) Submerge each prepared dialysis cell in a 400mL beaker with 150 mL’s solution correlating to Table #1. These solutions must be measured using a 100 mL graduated  cylinder. Measuring with a 100mL graduated cylinder ensures that no errors be made. To properly measure 100mL, the graduated cylinder should be placed on a flat surface and you should be at eye level with its measurements. A full 100mL is measured at the bottom of the meniscus. Because 150mL of the solution is needed, two separate measurements must be made. An entire measurement from the 100mL graduated cylinder and a half should be measured. Record the time the dialysis cell is submerged in the solution; this will insure an accurate timing at which the dialysis cell must be weighed. Label each dialysis cell and solution filled beaker. This will provide knowledge as to which solution is contained in each beaker and avoid any error from being made. 6) In 30 minute intervals for 90 minutes, the cells must be removed from each beaker and blotted try with clean paper towel to be weighed. Record each measurement every time the cell is being weighed. Do not rinse the cell under water again; this may compromise the cell and solution within the beaker. 7) At the conclusive part of the cell (last time weighing the cell) remove the cell from the solution filled beaker, and blot it dry. Proceed to using scissors to cut the cell, and pour the remaining content into a 250mL beaker. Label each beaker as to which it is containing. 8) Using 3 clean test tubes perform a chloride (Cl-) test, a glucose test and a sucrose/lactose test. Obtain 2mL of each solution from each beaker. This is done using a pipette and pipette. Place the tip of the pipette in the solution of the beaker, and the pipetter is placed at the other end of the pipette. The pippetter sucks the solution into the pipette, this is a better method then using ones mouth to suck up the solution because it is more accurate and safer. Using a hot plate and a beaker filled with water, place each finished test tube into the beaker. The water contained in the beaker must be boiling before each test tube is placed within it. Using this method, the solutions reaction will occur at a much faster rate. This applies to each test. In the (Cl-) test, 2 drops silver nitrate(AgNo3) are added to each 2mL solution that has been measured and placed into a test tube from the obtained material from the cell. This test measures for the salt content in the solution. In th e glucose test, Benedict’s test is performed using a 1:1 ratio of Benedict’s test to solution. These tests for the glucose in each solution. Finally the sucrose/lactose test uses the same content as the glucose test. Benedict’s test is performed using a 1:1 ratio  of Benedict’s test to solution. This test measures for reducing sugars. The indicator for each test is color. When there is a color change to the solution that means the test has tested positive. 9) At the end of the lab, all observations should have been recorded in your notebook. Results: The data shows (Graph #1 and Graph #2) that in each case, the dialysis bag slight increases or decreases in mass over a period of 90 minutes. The increase or decrease in mass of the dialysis cell is solely based upon the concentration gradient within the dialysis cell and its environment as to which it is placed in. In each graph, it displays which dialysis cells have increased or decreased in mass. For each cell that has increased in mass, (A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, and F1), diffusion and osmosis has occurred into the cell. As a result the cell has swollen because water has moved into the cell. Dialysis cells that have decreased in mass, (A2, B2, C2, D2, E2, and F2), have had the opposite reaction occur. Diffusion and osmosis has moved water out of the cell, causing a decrease in mass. This is due to the dialysis cell containing a hypotonic solution as its environment at which it was submerged is hypertonic. This then causes the cell to shrink in mass. Due to the different data shown in G raph #1 and Graph #2, we know that the cells and environments contained different concentration gradients because not all data is the same. This means that no dialysis cells or environments have reached equilibrium and have become isotonic. Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to observe the physical mechanisms of osmosis and diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of particles. The particles move from areas of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. The diffusion of water moves into or out of a selectively permeable membrane, this process is called osmosis. Because of the selectively permeable membrane, nothing but water and other very small particles are able to diffuse. The dialysis tubing is similar to the function of the cell membrane. As a result the dialysis cell loses water and also gains because of osmosis due to the transport of water. This occurs when the dialysis cell is placed in an environment in which water concentration is greater than  that of the cell. The dialysis cell gains water when placed in and environment in which the concentration is lower. This concept describes how molar concentration (the number of moles in a solute per liter of solution) affects diffusion. The perception of solutions diffusing has been observed in different situations. Diffusion always moves from a high concentration to a low concentration, this is affected by molar concentration. As the molecular mass decreases, more solution is diffused. This hypothesis was made due to the knowledge of molecules diffusing down a concentration gradient. As a result, the mass of the dialysis tubes have increased, as the molarity of a solution increases, the percent of change in mass will increase as well. This affect occurred in cells (A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, F1). As the molarity of a solution decreased in other dialysis tubes, the mass of the dialysis tubes have decreased and percent change in mass has decreased as well. The amount of increase and decrease of diffusion is based on the molecule size. This occurred in cells (A2, B2, C2, D2, E2, F2). As molecular size increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. This is because it has a greater resistance going through the medium of the membrane. When molecular size de creases, then rate of diffusion increases because the molecule has less of a resistance to go through the dialysis cells semi-membrane. Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Ms. Huggins for preparing each of the solutions for the class as well as the class for preparing portions of the lab as a group effort. Without having any group effort within the class, the lab would have taken more time then what would have been given. I would also like to thank the class for contributing in providing portions of the lab data, without this data we would have not been able to properly provide right information need for the lab. References: Campbell, N.A., and Reece, J.B. 2002. Biology, 8th ed. Benjamin Cummings. Pp. 131-134 for osmosis. Molecular Cell Biology, 4th edition, Harvey Lodish, Arnold Berk, S Lawrence Zipursky, Paul Matsudaira, David Baltimore, and James Darnell. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Chapter 2. Separate from Biology in the Laboratory 3e, Doris R. Helms, Carl W Helms, Robert J. Kosinski, John C. Cummings; W.H. Freeman, Dec 15, 1997 Data: Table #1: Experimental protocol to follow for tests of osmosis and diffusion. Summary: This table shows us what solution is contained within the dialysis cell or its environment contained in a beaker. This chart also tells us what test has to be conducted upon the beaker and the cell solution after the 30 minute intervals made in a period of 90 minutes. When the cell has finished diffusing after a period of 90 minutes, then these tests can be conducted. Solution in beaker Solution in cell Test solution in beaker for*†¦ Test solution in cell for*†¦ A1 H2O NaCl Cl- Cl- A2 NaCl H2O Cl- Cl- B1 H2O glucose glucose glucose B2 glucose H2O glucose glucose C1 H2O sucrose/lactose lactose lactose C2 sucrose/lactose H2O lactose lactose D1 NaCl glucose glucose Cl- D2 glucose NaCl Cl- glucose E1 NaCl sucrose/lactose lactose Cl- E2 sucrose/lactose NaCl Cl- lactose F1 glucose sucrose/lactose none none F2 sucrose/lactose glucose none none Table #3: Example showing molecular mass of particles Summary: This table is to shows the molecular mass of the particles used in the lab. This will help understand why some solutions diffuse faster than others. When a particle is bigger, it takes a longer time for it to diffuse through the membrane because it has to push itself through the membrane rather than slide through the membrane as a small particle would. Name of Solution Formula for Solution Moelcular Mass of Solution (g) Water H2O 18g/ mol Sodium Chloride NaCl 58.5g/ mol Glucose C6H12O6 180g/ mol Sucrose/ Lactose C12H22O11 684g/ mol Lactose C12H22O11 342g/ mol Table #2: Weight produced over time by different cells submerged in different solutions Summary: This table displays an increase or decrease in mass of the dialysis cell in 30 minute intervals over a period of 90 minutes. This helps us to understand the concentration gradients of the cell or environment of the cell due to its reaction. The cells that increases in size, we now know that the cell was hypertonic placed in a hypotonic solution because in order to reach equilibrium the amount of particles within the cell must be the same. Because they have not reached equilibrium this results in the movement of molecules moving from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution through a selectively permeable membrane (dialysis tubing), this is called osmosis. In order for the particles to move across the membrane diffusion must occur for the movement from high osmotic concentration to lower osmotic concentration to occur. The cells that decrease in mass are hypotonic place in a hypertonic solution. We know that because osmosis and diffusion has occurred, allowing the solution and pa rticles to move out of the cell into the cells environment. Once the cell is finished being weighed in 30 minute intervals over a period of 90 minutes, a silver nitrate (AgNO3) test (test for salts present in the solution), glucose test a sucrose/ lactose test (tests for reducing sugars) are conducted. The column in green represents whether the solutions tested positive or negative for the substances. Change in Mass (g) Time (min) A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2 E1 E2 F1 F2 0 26.42 25.99 27.69 26.65 28.65 26.32 27.36 26.74 28.78 26.75 27.80 27.96 30 27.24 25.41 31.84 21.71 34.89 21.32 30.38 23.41 34.33 20.00 29.85 25.91 60 27.33 24.94 33.80 19.44 40.21 18.37 31.33 21.55 38.21 16.83 31.42 24.00 90 27.12 24.70 34.95 18.83 44.15 15.93 33.47 20.18 41.23 14.50 33.42 21.87 Test (+/-) positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + positive + Graph #1: Change in mass over 90 minutes in 30 minute intervals. Cells A to C. Summary: This graph visually shows us which dialysis cells gained or lost mass due to it concentration difference between the inside of the dialysis cell and its environment in which it was submerged in. Due to some cells having gained or lost more than other cells, some of the differences were much greater or lower than others. These means diffusion would have occurred faster or slower do to the solutions molecular size. When a particle is bigger, it takes a longer time for it to diffuse through the membrane because it has to push itself through the membrane rather than slide through the membrane as a small particle would. Graph #2: Change in mass over 90 minutes in 30 minute intervals. Cells D to F. Summary: This graph visually shows us which dialysis cells gained or lost mass due to it concentration difference between the inside of the dialysis cell and its environment in which it was submerged in. Due to some cells having gained or lost more than other cells, this tells us that some of the concentration differences were much greater or lower than other. These means diffusion would have occurred faster or slower do to the solutions molecular size. When a particle is bigger, it takes a longer time for it to diffuse through the membrane because it has to push itself through the membrane rather than slide through the membrane as a small particle would. Sources of Error: Forgetting to rinse our dialysis bags with water before weighing our cell will cause cross contamination to occur thus changing the composition of the solution that the cell has been submerged in as well as affecting the rate of diffusion and osmosis due to the dialysis tubing pores having already been compromised.

Independent Study on Culture's Influence on luxury consumption in Term Paper

Independent Study on Culture's Influence on luxury consumption in China and USA - Term Paper Example In order to accomplish that endeavor, the paper will examine the consumer’s characteristics in these two markets and make marketing recommendations. The paper will also give an example of some corporations and brands that have capitalized on these unique characteristics through their marketing strategies to capture the luxury market. The recent researches conducted on consumer behavior have shown a direct correlation between the people’s culture and consumer behavioral patterns (Henry 122). Each culture has its own values that it upholds. These values are the ones that affect the consumer’s attitudes towards certain products, which ultimately affect the consuming patterns and behaviors. The cultural identity affects the choice of products by affecting the perceptions and judgments of the consumer. Once these perceptions and judgments have been made consistent such that they are predictable, the consumer can said to have formed a consuming behavior. Multinational companies use these customers’ behaviors and preferences to design their marketing strategies so that they can optimize their sales and maximize their profitability (Hostede 32). As Russell and Valenzuela (87) aptly captures it, â€Å"Cross cultural value systems will influence consumer tipping behavior, product evaluations, value-a ttitude relations, persuasion effects, consumer innovativeness and behavioral intention models†. Figure 1 shows how culture influence consumer behaviors. However, culture has also been found to affect only the consumption of certain goods. There are, thus, some exempted cases whereby the culture of a certain place barely has a bearing on the consumer behaviors of a certain product. A good example is a global product, which blurs any existing cultural differences. A consumer of such a product is known as a global consumer who is not dependent on a culture to make consumption decisions in

Kennaway and Thompson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9000 words

Kennaway and Thompson - Essay Example Traditional theories of private property ownership involve the recognition of absolute possession to the exclusion of all others. However, other theories of private property ownership recognize that there are limits to the exclusivity of private property ownership. Both the exclusivity and limits to that exclusivity are captured by Protocol 1 and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 which is now a part of law in England and Wales pursuant to the Human Rights Act 1998. The limits to exclusivity in private property ownership are necessitated by a number of competing rights: the public interest in encouraging productive activities, the rights of others and the right to the reasonable use and enjoyment of one’s property. Thus from an economic perspective private property ownership necessarily involves trade-offs and a balancing of rights. The tort of nuisance is demonstrative of the economic approach to balancing the competing interest in private property ownership. Much of the law relative to the limits of exclusivity in private property ownership under the tort of nuisance was established under the common law and typically refers to a number of activities. The rule in Rylands v Fletcher in was established to deal with a single act of nuisance giving rise to interference in the use and enjoyment of one’s land. The rule of law in Rylands establishes liability where activities conducted by one owner/occupier causes damages to the use or enjoyment of property owned or occupied by another. 7 The rule in Rylands and the rule applicable to nuisance generally have since been expanded to limit liability to the extent

Enhancing Occupational Safety and Environmental Health while Adapting Essay

Enhancing Occupational Safety and Environmental Health while Adapting to Alternative Fuels - Essay Example Their mass level production can solve this problem. Since 1999 the United States government has been working to promote the alternative fuel program and understands that governmental intervention can fill the gaps between production cost and consumption of alternate fuels. Brief introduction of these fuels is, Biomass, Geothermal, Hydro power, solar power, Tidal power, Wave power and Wind power. The purpose of this project is to clarify the positive affects of alternative fuel program. With the usage of different forms of alternative fuels, there will be less of a demand on renewable resources. Most importantly, the dependence on fossil fuels imported fro OPEC. While quantifying the consumption of fossil fuels from around the world, Demirbas (2008) found that "countries in the Middle East to include the Russian Federation hold 70% of the worlds dwindling reserves of oil and gas" (p.3). Therefore, project will demonstrate that with the implementation of alternative fuel programs, it will result in safer working conditions for employees and a significant reduction of environmental degradation. Bio-fuel may be defined as a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel that is derived from relatively freshly dead biological materials and can be distinguished from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material. Theoretically, bio-fuels are produced from any (bi... ned as a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel that is derived from relatively freshly dead biological materials and can be distinguished from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material.Theoretically, bio-fuels are produced from any (biological) carbon source albeit; the most common sources may be the plants. Various plants and plant-derived materials may be used for the production of bio-fuel. Globally, biomass fuels are being most commonly used for the purpose of cooking and heating of homes and larger facilities. In European countries, more than 25% of heating is done with bio-fuels, including wood pellets, wood and chips. In Sweden, over 35% of all facilities are heated with biomass fuels which are incinerated in central biomass boilers at over 90% efficiency. Bio-fuels can also be used to generate steam and create electricity, and converted into a liquid or gas for use in motor vehicles. The process of conversion of biomass into electricity or into a liquid or gaseous form generally requires electricity that is mostly produced with coal. The efficiency of biomass to produce electricity, liquid bio-fuels, and gaseous bio-fuels consumes only 25-35% of the energy content of the originally biomass feedstock. This project is aimed at looking at all these aspects from occupational safety and ecological point of view. Topic and Brief Literature Review The topic of this Capstone research paper will be Enhancing Occupational Safety and Environmental Health while adapting to Alternative fuels. Below is an abbreviated list of sources that have been reviewed. 1- Pahl G. (January 2007). , in his book titled, "The Citizen-Powered Energy handbook. Community Solutions to a Global Crisis"

Managerial Accounting and Business Analysis Essay

Managerial Accounting and Business Analysis - Essay Example 220.65 Over draft Bank Balance &cash 100 354.01 1701.67 Total current assets 100 133.05 65.96 Total fixed assets 100 377.74 187.27 Total assets 100 56,91 66.17 Account payables 100 117.67 0.32 Retained income 100 216.71 130.16 Total liabilities and equity 100 156.68 188.85 Income Report for Bell way Plc Figures in million of pounds 2003 000 000 2004 2005 Turnover 954,197 1,092,571 1,178,063 Gross Income 739,479 829,598 280,402 Trading income 172,762 213,277 229,448 Interest received 1,427 1,361 2,267 Earnings before interest and tax 169,251 205,530 218,163 Interest paid 5,811 10,477 13,474 Taxation 50,687 61,700 65,400 Earnings after tax 169,251 205,530 152,763 Dividends 24,166 29,864 37,137 Retained income for the year 94,398 113,971 115,620 Balance sheet for Bell way Plc. 2003 2004 2005 Assets 16,200 16,673 16,203 Stock 478,935 587,635 Over draft Bank Balance &cash 3,468 4,926 703,048 Total current assets 482,327 590,246 697,649 Total fixed assets 16,200 16,200 697,649 Total assets 482,327 590,246 681,446 Account payables Retained income 94,398 113,971 115,626 Total liabilities and equity 482,327 590,246 697,649 If the above results are converted into indexed values form the following results can be obtained. 2003 2004 2005 Assets 100 102.47 109.26 Stock 100 119.56 145.27 Account receivables 100 100100 Over draft Bank Balance &cash 100 135.83... Recommendation according to horizontal analysis: Though the investment decision cannot be taken only on comparison it can serve as one of the criteria. In case of two companies the profits and turnover had shown a trend of increasing. The total current assets of the Telford was not showing consistent trend when compared to Bell way Plc. The account payables in the 2006 were less for Telford and thus it maintained a increase trend in profit. But the decrease in account payables may show affect in the coming year and the increase trend may not be this much stronger. In contrast to Telford the Bell way was increasing the current assets along with account payables done and still maintaining the increasing trend of profit. This tells us about the good marketing, payment, asset increasing and profit retaining strategies and according to comparison it is advisable to invest in Bell Way According to vertical analysis the items in the income account were calculated as the percentage of turnover. This tells us about the healthy and unhealthy trends of profit making, the company is experiencing. In vertical analysis it can be observed that the bank balance, current assets were not following a healthy trend in case of Telford Plc. The liquidation of assets was maintained as cash in telford.

Business Inventory control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Inventory control - Essay Example At the same time, money which is tied in inventory can’t be used for other purposes (Dubrin, 2011, pg: 211). Because of these reasons, it is very important to monitor and keep a control over inventory. Inventory control takes all the more importance because of the following reasons (Jawahar – Lal, 2008, pg. 118): a. Demand fluctuations –Demand for an organization’s products vary from season to season. In times of fluctuating demands, inventory plays a very critical role. Insufficient inventory will lead to frequent stock-outs whereas a very high inventory will lead to huge costs for storage and maintenance of inventory. b. Uncertainty in receiving the item from the supplier – Often there can be uncertainties in receiving inventory items from the supplier. An organization should keep buffer against such uncertainties by keeping sufficient stocks of the inventory. Inventory is one of the most critical components of the order to cash conversion cycle. It is important for an organization to have a control over the inventory because the same affects the profitability of the firm considerably. A less amount of inventory will lead to stock-outs and customers being returned without the sales while a high amount of inventory on the other hand leads to high cost in storage and

LAW CASE (sheapard v. united states) Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

LAW (sheapard v. united states) - Case Study Example In 1933 Major Shepard files a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari. A Writ of Certiorari is a document in which the losing party files with the Supreme Court asking them to review the case from a lower court (Techlaw Journal, 2008). This can be done when the petitioner is dissatisfied with the decisions of the lower courts including the US Court of Appeals. A Writ can be granted at the discretion of the US Supreme Court. The Supreme Court being the highest Court in the Nation has the right to not accept the petition and there has to be some kind of compelling reason for acceptance. In Shepards Case the Writ of Certiorari was granted. US Supreme Court Judge Cardozo reveals to the court that circumstantial evidence was used to prove to the jury the Major Shepard was guilty. According to the judge a conversation with Mrs. Shepards nurse Clara Brown, Mrs. Shepard asked the nurse to find her a bottle of whiskey. She then asked the nurse if there was enough left to prove the existence of poison. The nurse then states that the Mrs. Shepard accuses her husband of poisoning her. The Judge then states "The admission of this declaration, if erroneous, was more than unsubstantial error. As to that the parties are agreed. The voice of the dead wife was heard in accusation of her husband, and the accusation was accepted as evidence of guilt.

Critical Response (SPANISH) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critical Response (SPANISH) - Essay Example Argentina gozaba de un gobierno republicano y Brasil ese mismo aà ±o cambiarà ­a su gobierno monà ¡rquico en un gobierno republicano. Estos factores contribuyeron a que ambas naciones se mostraran entusiastas con presentar sus mejores imà ¡genes ante el mundo en la Exposicià ³n Universal de Parà ­s. Fernà ¡ndez Bravo concluye su artà ­culo sobre la participacià ³n de Argentina y Brasil en este evento internacional enfatizando que desde un punto de vista estos paà ­ses fracasaron en mostrar una imagen favorable y desde otro punto de vista tuvieron à ©xito en otros aspectos. El autor citado resume su ensayo del siguiente modo: â€Å"Tanto en el pabellà ³n brasilero como en el argentino, las mercancà ­as funcionaron como actores de un espectà ¡culo en el que se intentaron reflejar nuevas imà ¡genes de la nacià ³n. En ninguno de los dos casos estos retratos parecen haber sido exitosos frente a la percepcià ³n europea, que siguià ³ considerà ¡ndolos paà ­ses exà ³ticos y todavà ­a alejados de los està ¡ndares del progreso universal. Sin embargo, en su imagen domà ©stica las iconografà ­as montadas en la Exposicià ³n Universal de 1889 parecen haber construido representaciones perdurables en la memoria colectiva: las de paà ­ses ricos en materias primas y marcados por ellas, como una cifra de la naturaleza americana nacionalizada, finalmente sometida por los dispositivos estatales que la transformaron en objeto de consumo y tambià ©n en un espectà ¡culo. Un espectà ¡culo poblado de mercancà ­as pero todavà ­a vacà ­o del sujeto colectivo que los pabellones parecà ­an querer imaginar: aq uà ©l que ayudarà ­a a construir la inmigracià ³n europea, en la que veà ­an un remedio para los problemas que aquejaban a sus naciones.† Por un lado, los pabellones de Argentina y Brasil presentaron principalmente productos agrà ­colas como sus principales bondades que les daban identidad

The religious believer Essay Example for Free

The religious believer Essay Explain the difficulties which the problem of evil poses for the religious believer. [35] Evil is a multifaceted term that can refer to moral evil (acts committed by human beings such as murder or rape) or natural evil (naturally occurring events such as famines, diseases and earthquakes). Both forms cause unimaginable human suffering. John Hick described evil as â€Å"physical pain, mental suffering and moral wickedness. † It is not surprising, then, that the existence of evil can be a stumbling block for religious believers. Evil and suffering poses an obvious problem for the believer who trusts in a loving and powerful God. As Epicurus surmised in his inconsistent triad, if God is willing but unable to prevent evil he must not be omnipotent. Or, he could be able to prevent it and doesn’t. This means he is not omnibenevolent, and is not worthy of worship. The existence of evil calls into question the traditional theistic attributes of God. Hume had very similar ideas to Epicurus, he wrote, â€Å"Epicuruss old questions are still unanswered. † The ironical Hume suggests that the god who designed the universe must have been a failure at the job and should have tried his hand at something else. The creator of our universe, says Hume, might have been a god in his dotage. Or perhaps he was `an infant deity still practising his craft. The suffering of children is a particular stumbling block for believers. It is understandable why sinful adults should suffer, but unless one holds to the doctrine of total depravity children are innocent. The Brothers Karamazov by the Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky explores this theme. It tells the story of brothers Ivan and Alyosha Alyosha is a holy young monk, whilst Ivan is a worldly-wise young man returning home from the big city. Ivan tells Alyosha he cannot accept the suffering of children, using the horrific practices of the Turks shooting babies when they invaded Russia as an example. Although a work of fiction, this tale mirrors the experiences and doubts of many believers. Friedrich Nietzsche, who famously announced the death of God, is another philosopher who tried to use the existence of evil and suffering to disprove God. A vehement critic of Christian morality, he thought that the concepts of good and evil were invented in the course of an elaborate power-game, as a way for weaker people to undermine the natural drives of their more powerful oppressors. However, suffering remained for Nietzsche one of the central problems of philosophy. Under the influence of his fellow German Arthur Schopenhauer – a notorious pessimist who wrote that the longer you live, the more clearly you will feel that, on the whole, life is a disappointment, nay, a cheat – Nietzsche saw suffering and tragedy as intrinsic to life and impossible to reconcile with the idea of a loving God. Furthermore, John Mackie argues that God could have created any possible world. The steps in his argument are as follows: God could have created any possible world, it is logically possible in one of the possible worlds that free human beings always acted rightly, therefore there is no logical contradiction in saying that in another of the possible worlds God could have created, ALL human beings always acted rightly. Gods failure to actualise this world means that he is not wholly good. This could pose a challenge to the faith of religious believers. If God is timeless, then perhaps [and this is debatable] God could not deliberate between alternatives he chooses the perfect universe that His perfect nature leads Him to create and the idea of His choosing between alternatives is not viable. If God is in time, He had to take a risk when creating the Universe and may not have known what human beings would do with their freedom. For instance in Genesis, Ch. 6 says that God regrets having made men and if this is taken literally it can imply that he was taken by surprise at what human beings had done. In order to combat this, several theologians have put forward theodicies to explain the existence of evil. The Irenaean theodicy is ‘soul-making. ’ Humans are in an immature moral state, though we have the potential for moral perfection. God brings in suffering for the benefit of humanity and from it we learn positive values. Contrastingly, Augustine put forward a ‘soul-deciding’ theodicy. He accepts God is perfect. The world he created reflects that perfection, but humans were created with free will. Sin and death entered the world through Adam and Eve and their disobedience. Natural evil is consequence of this disharmony of nature brought about by the fall. God is justified in not intervening because the suffering is a consequence of human action. The theodicy that is perhaps the least accepted among theists is the process theodicy. Process theology argues that the reality of God is not fixed and that God himself is still developing. God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. The possibility of evil has always existed. Ultimately, the question surrounding the origin of evil and suffering will never truly be solved with our fallible human understanding. Suffering needs to be understood in the overall context of God’s omniscient plan. Finite beings cannot understand. Suffering could be a punishment, or a tool to bring us closer to God. To quote Joseph Conrad, The belief in a supernatural source of evil is not necessary; men alone are quite capable of every wickedness. †

Birth Control Pills Essay Example for Free

Birth Control Pills Essay Teen age also referred to as puberty is the age between twelve years and nineteen and it is one of the most crucial stages in life. For many young people, this is one period that presents difficulties for many as it is the time they get to discover exactly who they are. They begin to experience certain changes in their body and it is usually at this stage that they realize that there is a difference between a boy and a girl. Of the many issues that the young people discover during puberty is their sexuality. They get to learn how the reproductive system works and are sensitized that at this age they are capable of being reproductive as their reproductive systems at this point are fully mature. Although sexual intercourse is a reserve of the adults, it is a fact that cannot be refuted that young people, even as young as teenagers are now engaging in the act (Seaman. 54-57). Teenagers are getting sexually active as early as at the age of ten years. It is for this reason that it has become necessary for the teenagers to be sensitized among crucial issues like methods of protection from pregnancy and other sexually transmitted diseases. This paper focuses on birth control pills as one of the methods of contraceptives which is now very common among teenagers (Seaman. 75-77). Birth control pills are tablets whose chemical composition is made up of hormones which are meant to later the normal functioning of the body and specifically the reproductive system. The birth control pills just as the name suggests are taken as a precautionary measure to prevent a woman from getting pregnant after getting sexually involved with any form of protection (Zonderman. 83-86). How it Works As already mentioned birth control pills are made up of hormones that are meant to alter the normal functioning of the reproduction system and specifically the ovaries and the uterus. Most birth control pills contain a combination of hormones, mainly progesterone and estrogen whose function is to prevent ovulation and consequently prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm during sexual intercourse. As a result, a woman cannot conceive since no egg was available for fertilization. The chemicals in these pills also thicken the mucus that normally surrounds the cervix making it extremely difficult for the sperm to swim through to the uterus to reach any eggs that may have been released during ovulation. Sometimes these pills have the effect of making it hard for the egg to attach itself on the wall of the uterus and thus fertilization becomes impossible (Zonderman. 99-103). Dosage While the dosage of these pills differs depending on the type, most of them are taken for 21 days or 28 days. This means that a woman is required to take these pills on a daily basis and once one pack of 28 pills is complete, a woman gets her periods. Some pills are such that they reduce the frequency at which a woman gets her monthly periods. This means that instead on the normal monthly period being received every month, a woman get period once in three months. Some pills have one hormone (progesterone) instead of the combination of progesterone and estrogen. The effect of such a pill is such that changes the mucus that surrounds the cervix and the lining around the uterus. However this pill has been found to be less effective in prevention of pregnancy in comparison with other birth control pills. For this pill to work it must be taken at the same time everyday without skipping (Watkins. 153-156). Any woman taking the minipill as it is commonly referred to is likely to miss her periods or get them but at irregular frequencies. During the first seven days when a woman begins to use birth control pills it is always advisable to use an additional form of contraception like a condom to prevent pregnancy. However after the seven day period the birth control pill should be strong enough to prevent pregnancy even without the use of an additional form of contraceptive. However it is important to note that birth control pills only protect a woman from getting pregnant and not from contracting sexually transmitted diseases. This therefore means that even when a woman is using the birth control pills it is important to use condoms to protect them from getting sexually transmitted infections. It is also important to note that birth control pills are not to be shared. A person should stick to their pack and never take pills belonging to a friend even though they are of the same type (Zonderman. 112-116). Effectiveness Research conducted by medical practitioners indicates that, even though the birth control pills are effective to a large extent, if used for a prolonged period they become ineffective and possibilities of becoming pregnant are high. This is because, just like any medicine, when the pills are used for lengthy periods, the body tends to develop resistance against the pill and thus the ineffectiveness. However this largely depends on how disciplined one is in taking the pills on a daily basis. Skipping taking the pills increases the chances of getting pregnant. In general the effectiveness of birth control pills is dependent on a number of factors including any inhibiting factor, for example intake of some medication may interfere with the effectiveness of birth control pills. How properly the pills are taken (without skipping) also determines the effectiveness of the pills (Watkins. 175-178). Side Effects Just like all others types of medication, birth control pills have various side effects. Some of the most common side effects of these pills include nausea, irregular menstrual cycle and change in moods. However these side effects are rarely felt and those who experience the side effects, they are only mild cases. Most of these side effects fade away with time and especially after the first three months most women no longer experience the side effects of these pills. Some of the most likeable side effects among teenagers of birth control pills include reducing the flow of the monthly periods so that they become lighter and reducing cramps that come with the monthly periods. In addition these pills have been said to offer protection from anemia, cancer of the ovaries and some diseases that affect the breast (Zonderman. 135-137). Conclusion Although birth control pills play an important role in keeping away unwanted pregnancies, it is important to remember that they do not protect one from sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS which has no cure. Abstinence especially among teenagers is the only sure to keep STDs and unwanted pregnancies at bay. If one has to engage in sexual intercourse then perhaps use of a condom may be advisable. Work cited Seaman. B. The doctors case against the pill. New York: Doubleday, 1980. Watkins, E. Siegel. On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950- 1970. Baltimore, Md: New York: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. Zonderman. J. Birth control pills, New York: Chelsea House, 2006.